University of California: ANTHRO 41A FINAL LATEST 2021/2022,100% CORRECT

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University of California: ANTHRO 41A FINAL LATEST 2021/2022 Fall of Aztec & Incan Empires ● Led to an influx of enormous amounts of wealth into Europe ● Spain become first European “superpowe... r” with Emperor Charles I as its ruler ● Disease is one of the primary reasons that these American empires fell to the Spanish conquistadors ● The Spanish were able to make alliances with local groups (such as the Tlaxcalans) who sent huge armies that gave the Spanish a huge military advantage Hernando Cortez ● Leader of a Spanish group who left Cuba insearch of a route to China/India ● They thought Cuba was actually in Southeast Asia ● Cortez and his men arrived in Mexico in 1519, the same year that a god, Quetzalcoatl, twwas predicted to arrive in the Aztec astrological calendar ● The Aztecs thought Cortez might possibly be this god and sent him gifts ● The Aztec Empire would later be destroyed by Cortez and his Tlaxcalan allies (the Tlaxcalans had an army of 149.000 and they hated the Aztecs) after the Aztec population had been devastated by European diseases Reasons for Aztec Conquest ● There are a number of reasons that the Aztec Empire fell to the Spanish ● Some of the key reasons include the fact that due to the timing of Cortez’s arrival, the Aztec’s did not initially attack him but rather gave him gifts of gold and welcomed him into their capital (due to the Quetzalcoatl legend) ● After Cortez and his men fled the Aztec city, the Aztec themselves lost over 75% of their population due to European diseases ● When Cortez returned months later, he had a huge army of Tlaxcalans who laid siege to the city for 80 days and starved many of the remaining Aztecs Eurocentric Economy ● Blaut argues that with the conquest of the Americas, Europe gains a huge economic advantage relative to other parts of the globe ● The global economic center shifts from the Indian Ocean to Europe, especially as Europe uses its American wealth to gradually take control of the trade centers in the Indian Ocean region Ming Dynasty and Admiral Zheng He ● The Mongol (Yuan) Dynasty of China that had been established by Kublai Khan in the 13th century was overthrown about a century later by the Ming dynasty ● The Ming dynasty was found by a peasant rebel who overthrew the Mongols in 1368 and became known as the Hongwu Emperor ● The early Ming emperors generally rejected the negative view of merchants promoted by Confucianism and expanded trade throughout China and Asia during the late 1300s and early 1400s ● The Ming dynasty also established a huge Chinese naval fleet that explored the Indian Ocean, sailed to Africa and protected merchants from piracy especially so under the leadership of Admiral Zheng He ● Due in part to the huge navy built by the Ming, China became a global superpower at this time and maintained the largest navy in the world in the early 1400s as well as the enormous army ● China also signed treaties and created military and economic alliances with 36 other kingdoms in throughout SE Asia and around the Indian Ocean during the reign of the second Ming Emperor known as the Yongle Emperor ● However, after the deaths of Emperor Yongle and Admiral Zheng He the Chinese navy fell into decline ● The Ming dynasty, facing ongoing struggles against the Mongols (who were hoping to retake the throne) lost its focus on external, international relationships ● When the Portuguese and other Europeans begin to appear and take colonies in the Indian Ocean in the 1500s, the Ming dynasty no longer maintained a significant navy that would have been able to halt the growth of European colonialism in the region Protocapitalism to Capitalism ● Blaut argues that the new wealth from the Americas allows Europe to develop a growing middle class who will take political power for themselves and will ultimately develop the feudal states of Europe into a set of “capitalist” states Max Weber & Rise of Capitalism ● Unlike Blaut, Weber argues that the wealth flowing into Europe from the American colonies was not enough in itself to cause Europe to end feudalism and develop “capitalism” ● Instead, Weber argued that people in Europe had to develop a set of moral ideas/beliefs whereby they believed that it was acceptable to overthrow the traditional rulers (kings, nobility, pope) and insist that the middle classes hold political power ● Weber further noticed that the transition to capitalism happened in Europe first in the Protestant nations, then later in the Catholic nations ● Therefore, Weber argues there must be something about Protestant attitudes that encouraged the development of capitalism ● Weber stated that it was the Protestants who first started challenging the power of the traditional rulers (popes, then kings and other nobility) and their beliefs would pave the way for a new capitalist state system that would replace the traditional feudal/tributary system Protestants - 3 Key Groups ● Protestants believe that the pope is not God’s representative and “protest” the pope’s claim to authority ● Martin Luther produced the first wave of Protestants ● King Henry VIII of England created a second wave of Protestants when he declared England was no longer Catholic (became Anglican) and was not subject to the pope’s authority so that he could divorce his first wife ● Henry VIII also became incredibly wealthy by confiscating all church property for himself ● The third and most radical wave of Protestants was led by John Calvin who claimed that not only Christians not have to over the pope but they could also disobey any kings who were “ungodly” ● John Calvin also claimed that the rising middle class were God’s elect and they had a right to hold political power ● Pietists refer to a later movement among Lutherans that were more ascetic and influenced by Calvinism more than other Lutherans The Habsburg Myths ● The Hapsburg (or Habsburg) family had a number of religious and mystical claims about the special nature of their family ● They claimed to be descended from the royal family of ancient Troy and from Julius Caesar and Caesar Augustus ● The Habsburgs claimed to be chosen by God to prepare the way for the Kingdom of Heaven and Christ’s Second Coming ● They claimed their family was destined to rule over all ● Emperor Frederick III’s personal motto was A.E.I.O.U ● Frederick was the great-grandfather of Charles V ● The family also believed astrology supported their destiny to become a family of global Christian rulers Martin Luther ● Posted the 95 Theses on his church door in Wittenberg, Saxony on Oct. 31, 1517 ● His 95 Theses is credited a marking the beginning of the Protestant Reformation ● This reformation was part of a process of political and social change in Western Europe that would eventually undermine feudalism and create modern nation-states based on capitalist economic relationships ● Martin Luther was taken to trial in front of Emperor Charles for his religious teaching at the Diet of Worms ● With help from the Duke of Saxony, Luther would escape any punishment from Emperor Charles, but the emperor would declare Luther to be an outlaw ● Luther, however, would continue to thrive and he developed a large following both during his long life and afterwards Duke Frederick of Saxony ● The Duke of Saxony rescued Martin Luther from a likely execution sentence from Emperor Charles at the Diet of Worms (1521) ● Luther had refused to recant his criticisms of the Pope and the Catholic Church (his 95 theses) ● Frederick arranged for bandits to “kidnap” Luther and hide him from the emperor and the pope for several years in Wartburg Castle ● While in hiding, Luther translated the New Testament portion of the Bible into German and sent it out for mass publication (which was illegal at the time) Martin Luther’s Criticisms ● Challenged the Sale of Indulgences and the Doctrine of Transubstantiation ● Emphasized Rationality over Mysticism and Faith & Conscience instead of Rituals & Sacraments ● Luther challenged the supremacy and power of the Pope over the Church and claimed that every person could commune directly with God without the need of clergy or priests ● He claimed that study of the Bible was the preferred way of learning about God ● Luther would be excommunicated from the Catholic Church for his teachings ● His followers would also be expelled from the Catholic Church and become known as “Lutherans” ● Luther translated the New Testament portion of the Bible into German while hiding in Wartburg Castle Emperor Charles I & V 1500-1558 ● Emperor Charles I & V (he was known as Charles I in some parts of Europe and Charles V in other parts of Europe) was a Holy Roman Emperor and the most powerful European ruler in Western Europe since the Fall of Rome in 476 AD ● As defender of the Catholic Church, Emperor Charles repeatedly tried to stop the Protestant Reformation begun by Martin Luther in 1517 ● But Charles frequently found that many of his princes sided with Luther against him ● His aunt, Catherine of Aragon, was the first wife of King Henry VIII of England ● Charles V put pressure on the pope not to approve Henry’s request to divorce Catherine ● However, Henry VIII divorced Catherine in 1532 without the pope’s approval and split England from the Roman Catholic Church, this furthering the spread of Protestantism and forming the separate Church of England (Anglican Church) ● Emperor Charles abdicated the throne in 1556, shortly after signing the treaty of Augsburg in 1555 ● He splits his empire and gives Spain, the Netherlands and parts of Italy, the Philippines and the Spanish-American colonies to his son, King Philip II of Spain, but the electors award the eastern half of hi sempire to Charles’ younger brother, Emperor Ferdinand I Peasants’ War 1524-1526 ● This is the first major European uprising fueled by the Protestant Reformation ● Influenced by Luther’s teachings about authority, the peasants rebelled against the nobility in many of the German provinces ● However, Luther himself does not support the peasants and urges the German nobility to crush the rebellion ● More than 100,000 German peasants are killed Treaty of Augsburg 1555 ● After decades of fighting with some of his own nobility over Protestantism, Emperor Charles V finally grants religious tolerance to Lutherans (but not Calvinists) ● This treaty largy resulted because Emperor Charles suffered a military defeat at the hands of the French King, Henry II, who was assisted by German Protestant princes who were angry with Charles’ suppression of Protestants ● The religious freedom established by this treaty maintains relative peace in the Holy Roman Empire until renewed religious fighting breaks out in 1618 Thirty Years’ War (1618-1648) ● In 1555 Emperor Charles had been force to sign the Treaty of Augsburg guaranteeing religious tolerance to Lutherans ● However, in the early 1600s, the Habsburg emperors once again antagonized the Protestants in the Holy Roman Empire by permitting the religious persecution of all Protestants and destroying Protestant churches ● These emperors once again claimed that the HAbsburg family had been chosen by God to defend the Catholic Church and to prepare the world for Christ’s return ● The actions of these emperors caused powerful Protestants to react by forming the Evangelical Union (led by Protestant nobility) who ought against the Habsburg Emperor and other Catholic Princes who had formed their own political union known as the Catholic League ● The Thirty Years war begins in 1618 in the Holy Roman Empire but soon spreads to include all of Western Europe except for Great Britain, Scotland, and Ireland ● Even Sultan Osman II of the Ottoman Empire became involved, giving support to the Protestants and fighting against the CAtholics at certain points during the war ● By 1627, the Habsburg Emperor Ferdinand II had outlawed all forms of Protestantism within his Empire ● This war finally ends with the signing of the Peace of Westphalia in 1648 ● The power of both the pope and the emperor are dramatically reduced by the conclusion of this war ● In some parts of Europe, up to two-thirds of the population died during the war ● Over seven million Europeans are killed b the time this war is over ● Disease in Europe including plague is also rampant during the war years ● Fifty percent of all men in the Holy Roman Empire have died by the time this war ends ● The Thirty Years’ War ultimately leads to end of feudal system in much of Europe ● The old feudal order is replaced by “sovereign” nation-states ● The emperor and pope lost most of their political authority The Peace of Westphalia - 1648 ● The Peace (Treaty) of Westphalia ends the Thirty Years War and establishes a “modern” system of nation-states, each with their own sovereign borders, independent rulers and religious and national identity ● This is the final blow to the feudal system and the Holy Roman Emperor is now only a figurehead with very little actual power ● He only retains any real political power over this homeland of Austria ● Each region within the empire is now politically autonomous and recognized the emperor in name only ● Also, the pope’s power is drastically reduced both politically and economically with the formal recognition of Protestant European nations who do not recognize the pope as having any authority and no nation is obligated to pay taxes to the pope Mercantilism - Protocapitalism ● Banking, Trade, Finance, were growing during the Middle Ages and this resulted in growth of the middle classes ● However, there would be no full-scale capitalism until the bourgeoisie gain political power for themselves in the new capitalist nation-states (such as what happened in The Dutch Republic) Bourgeoisie ● New Rising Middle Class forms as a result of colonialism and the conquest of the new World ● New wealth pours in from exploitation in Americas and other colonies ● Empowered by the teachings of John Calvin, the bourgeoisie will eventually seek and fight for political power in western Europe ● The establishment of the Dutch Republic as well as the English Civil War (Puritan Rebellion) led by Oliver Cromwell and the Glorious Revolution of 1688 are prime examples of the bourgeoisies’ challenge to and overthrow the feudal system Fears about Money ● Ride of the middle class wealth challenges the traditional feudal social order ● The new wealth of the middle classes is viewed as immoral ● This new money is initially seen as evil and a threat to social morality and stability ● The charging of interest on loans is considered sinful/immoral ● However, John Calvin would argue that the accumulation of wealth among the growing European middle classes was actually a sign that they were actually please to God and were a part of God’s “elect” Henry VIII - (Anglican) Church of England ● The English King, Henry VIII (1491-1547) wants a divorce from Catherine of Aragon ● The pope, under pressure from Emperor Charles V, refuses to grant the divorce ● Catherine is the aunt of Charles V ● Henry divorces CAtherine anyway in 1532 and borrowing from MArtin Luther’s Protestant claims, creates a Church of England that is free from the authority of the pope and Henry places himself as the supreme head of this new English Church ● As a result, the English aristocracy becomes incredibly wealthy because all the Catholic Church’s lands, taxes, and wealth throughout England now become property of the English Crown King Edward VI (1537-1553) ● Edward VI comes to the throne in England at the age of 9 (1547) after the death of his father, Henry VIII ● Edward was the son of Henry’s third wife, Jane Seymour ● Edward kept England separated from the Church of Rome and the pope’s power ● Edward maintained his father’s tradition by being recognized as the supreme head of the Anglican Church ● Edward died at the age of 15 and names his 17 year old cousin, Lady Jane Grey, to succeed him ● However, after ruling for only 9 days Jane would be overthrown by Edward’s older half- sister, Mary, and later executed at the Tower of London Mary I - (“Bloody Mary”) 1516-1558 ● After Henry VIII dies, his only son, Edward VI (son of Jane Seymour - wife #3) becomes king ● But Edward’s rule is short lived (1547-1553) and after his death, Edward’s half-sister, MAry (daughter of Catherine of Aragon) uses military force to take the throne of England in 1553 ● Mary has her cousin, Lady Jane Grey, beheaded for treason ● Mary marries the son of Emperor Charles V, Philip II - King of Spain, and together they reinstitute Catholicism in England ● She is known as “Bloody MAry” because of her religious persecution of Protestants in England Elizabeth I - 1533-1603 ● After Mary dies of cancer in 1558, her half-sister Elizabeth (daughter of Henry VIII and Anne Boleyn - wife #2) ● Elizabeth reinstitutes Protestantism in England ● She reinstates the English royal prerogative as supreme head of the Church of England ● Although both the pope and Philip II of Spain make plans for forcibly reinstate Catholicism in England, their plans are unsuccessful and England becomes a major Protestant naval power during Elizabeth’s reign Dutch Republic - 1581 ● The Low Countries (largely consisting of today’s Netherlands and Belgium) declared independence from the Spanish King Philip II (son of Emperor Charles) with the “Act of Abjuration” declared on June 14, 1581 ● For the next six years, the Dutch searched for an alternative monarch, even asking Elizabeth I of England to take the position as their sovereign, but she declined (fearing Spanish retaliation) ● The “States-General” then set up their own system of governance without any king or monarch in 1587 and this confederation of states became a republic ● The governance of the Dutch Republic was made up of both nobility and the wealthy middle classes who formed a new ruling body known as the “States-General” ● Both these groups were predominately Calvinists ● The republic was NOT a democracy but a meritocracy ● The wealthy nobles as well as capitalists passed laws promoting trade and business in their mutual favor ● The poorer classes were excluded from political power ● The first stock market in Europe was set up in the Dutch Republic ● The republic was clearly a modern capitalist, rather than a feudal, political and economic system Spanish Armada - 1588 ● The Spanish Navy is sent to end Protestantism in England and the Republic of the Netherlands ● This armada is hit by a massive storm and half of the fleet is sunk before it reaches the English and Dutch navies ● The surviving Spanish ships are defeated by Queen Elizabeth’s navy ● As a result, England becomes the most powerful naval force in Western Europe and both England and The Dutch Republic remain Protestant and free of Philip II’s rule John Calvin - Calvinism ● John Calvin was born in France in 1509 ● He converted to the Protestant beliefs as a young adult ● Although he initially followed the teaching of Martin Luther and the Lutheran Church, he eventually led a new set of beliefs that became known as “Calvinism” ● Calvinism promoted the following ideas which were not completely shared by the Lutherans ○ Predestination - the “elect” of God - God has preordained who will get into Heaven ■ Wealth is a sign of God’s approval ■ Calvin’s ideas are very popular with the rising middle classes (bourgeoisie) across Europe ■ Calvin settled in Geneva Switzerland and became known as a major leader of the Protestant reformation while living in that city ■ Followers of Calvin’s teaching become known in England as “Puritans” and in France his followers were known as “Huguenots” ■ In other parts of Western Europe they were generally referred to as Calvinists ■ The “Parable of the Talents” accumulating large sums of wealth ○ Hard work and the accumulation of wealth was viewed as a sign of God’s approval (the “Protestant Ethic”) ■ Calvin was NOT against the charging of interest (usury) which had been considered sinful by most Christians throughout the Middle Ages ○ Calvin also claimed that “ungodly kings” should not be obeyed ■ This notion began to lead to a popular Protestant and Enlightenment view of “sovereignty by the people” ■ Calvinism spread rapidly across western Europe among the newly rising middle classes and, according to the readings by Weber, were a key force in shaping modern nation-states and their relationship to capitalism Huguenots ● French Calvinists - they followed the teachings of John Calvin and frequently challenged the power of the Catholic French monarchy ● Many Huguenots would flee France after thousands of them became victims of a series of massacres known as the St. Bartholomew’s Day Massacres approved by the French monarchy ● This series of massacres began on Aug. 22, 1572 (St. Bartholomew’s Day) the day after the wedding between King Henry of Navarre (a Huguenot) and Princess MArgot of France (a Catholic) ● The French Queen Mother, Catherine de Medici and her son, the young King Charles IX of France, approved of the massacre of thousands of Huguenots who had come to Paris for the wedding of her Catholic daughter ● This king-approved massacre resulted in the death of thousands of Huguenots in Paris and throughout France ● Killings of Huguenots continued until October 3 of the same year ● The pope sent a golden rose as a sign of his approval to the French King Charles IX and ordered that a “Te Deum” or hymn of thanksgiving be performed ● On hearing of the Huguenots slaughter in FRance, King Philip II of Spain, son of Emperor Charles, was said to have “laughed for the only time on record” ● Many of the surviving French Huguenots fled to The Netherlands (where they would later help create the Dutch Republic) Henry of Navarre - Henri IV of France ● Henry (Henri) of Navarre was famous for his Huguenot (French Calvinist) beliefs and his marriage to the French Catholic Princess Margot (Princess Marguerite de Valois) just prior to the St. Bartholomew’s Day Massacre ● Their marriage was formally declared as the means to create peace between Huguenots and Catholics in France, but tragedy followed ● This tragedy would become known as the St. Bartholomew’s Day Massacre ● Although Henry of Navarre would be forced to renounce his Huguenot beliefs in favor of Catholicism, he would eventually become King Henri IV of France Puritans and Pilgrims ● Puritans were unhappy with the Church of England (the Anglican Church) ● Even though it is Protestant, the Church of England does not follow the teachings of John Calvin and it is controlled by the English monarchy ● Puritans, on the other hand, follow the teachings of John Calvin and are unhappy with the monarchy’s power ● Some Puritans, known as Pilgrims, leave England, spend many years in the Dutch Republic and then finally settle in North America in 1620 to establish their own colony (at Plymouth Rock) where the Anglican Church cannot touch them English Civil War 1640-1660 (Puritan Rebellion) ● Those Puritans who remain in England are unhappy with the rule of King Charles I ● They want political power to go with their new economic power ● The Puritans, who are anti-King, go to war against the Anglicans who are pro-king ● Oliver Cromwell leads the Puritans to victory over the Anglican ● The Puritans take power in England and execute King Charles I (1649) ● Cromwell rules as “Lord Protectorate” of England through the use of martial law (military rule) ● Theater, alcohol, dancing, and other worldly pleasures are forbidden to the English public during the period of Puritan rule ● The Protestant ethic becomes law during this period ● The English monarchy is eventually restored in 1660 when Charles II - son of the executed Charles I - is placed on the throne of England and the Puritans lose their power over the nation Glorious Revolution 1688 - Rule of Bourgeoisie ● The English bourgeoisie strongly dislikes King James II of England because he is Catholic ● King James II gained the English throne after his Protestant brotherm King Charles II, died ● The English bourgeoisie gains political power and reshapes the nation-state by inviting the Protestant princess Mary (who is the eldest daughter of James II) and her Dutch husband William of Orange, to bring a Dutch army and force James II off the throne ● In other words, the daughter brings an army to remove her CAtholic father from the throne in order to place herself and her Dutch husband on it ● When Mary and the Dutch army arrived in England, King James II was deserted by his own military who also disliked him for being Catholic ● James II fled to France ● His daughter and her husband took the throne ● However, William and Mary’s powers as king and queen of England are strongly limited by the Parliament which is becoming increasingly controlled by the middle classes ● William and Mary are England’s first “constitutional monarchs” which means that their powers are limited and controlled by laws passed by the Parliament ● A Bill of Rights is passed by Parliament guaranteeing rights and the power to vote only to wealthy, property owning, Protestant, English men Accumulation of Wealth (John Calvin) ● Calvinists believe this was a sign of blessing or approval from God ● The accumulation of wealth was a sign of being “God’s elect” ● Those who work hard and make money are pleasing to God ● Those who are poor are lazy and immoral and will be punished by God ● This is the basis for what Weber refers to as “The Protestant Ethic” Max Weber ● Weber’s book, The Protestant Ethic & The Spirit of Capitalism, discusses the key issues mentioned below: ○ Protestant Work Ethic ■ Calvinists believe that working and making money is pleasing to God ■ Therefore they start working more (lengthening of workweek) ■ Dancing, sports, drinking, music, and other distractions from work are considered sinful ○ Piety and the Accumulation of Wealth ■ Although Calvinists believe working hard and making money is a way to serve and please God, they also believe in being frugal and not wasting money on luxuries ■ Therefore, they begin to accumulate large sums of wealth which they reinvest to turn into even more wealth (which is invested yet again and ideally produces even more wealth, etc) which they believe is what God wants them to do and becomes a major tenet of modern capitalism ○ Protestant Discipline ■ Work vs. Pleasure ■ Work is morally good and glorifying to God ■ Making and accumulating money is a sign of God’s approval, but don’t waste it on pleasure, luxury or other forms on sin ■ Calvinist life centers around working and attending church ○ Capitalism ■ Bourgeoisie gains both political and economic power ■ Capitalist laws - after taking power, the bourgeoisie favor the middle classes and grant them political power, but continue to marginalize the lower classes and women ■ First example of a European capitalist nation was the Dutch REpublic founded in 1581 ■ Although it claimed to be a “republic” the new Dutch state only granted political power to wealthy white males ■ England would do the same after the Glorious Revolution of 1688 New Form of Nation-States ● Treaty of Westphalia 1648, national sovereignty, the end of the tributary/feudal system, rise of individual, separate nation-states ● National religion declared for each individual state ● Each nation was considered to have permanent sovereign territories ● Subjects were expected to be loyal to only one government, the government who directly ruled over the nation in which they lived ● Each nation was associated with one single religion ● These new nation-states would become increasingly capitalist, mixing the interests if business and finance with the interests of the state and political power would often eventually be shared between the nobility and the bourgeoisie ● Prime examples of this would be the power of the States-General in the Dutch Republic and the power of the English Parliament after the Glorious Revolution of 1688 The Orient Express ● This view starts by claiming that the first civilization of any importance was in the Middle East/Mesopotamia ● Assyrian, Babylonian, Persian, Greeks, Romans, Dark Ages, Renaissance - European Colonization The European Miracle ● A perspective that there was something unique about Europeans that set them apart from other human groups History vs. Historiography ● The writing of history vs. the process of recording and transmitting history is at least partly subjective Myth of Tropical Nastiness ● The first theory argues that tropical regions are innately inferior to cooler regions ● Tropical climates are nasty and inhibit the forward march of civilization ○ 1. The supposed negative effect of a hot, humid climate on the human mind and body ○ 2. The supposed inferiority of tropical climates for food production ○ 3. The supposed prevalence of disease in tropical regions ● ARGUMENTS ○ 1. People can work just as well in hot climates given time to adjust ○ 2. Tropical soil is just different and are actually exceptionally dertile ○ 3. The disease weren’t particularly tropical disease, rather diseases that are prevalent in overcrowded areas - Europe has had multiple plagues Myth of Lazy Africa ● The idea that tropical conditions induce sloth, indolence, etc. in everyone Myth of Despotic, Arid Asia ● Wittfogel claimed that irrigation requires major public works for the creation and maintenance of canals ● Hence requires a command-type political structure which also functions to control the distribution of water ● Hydraulic societies are necessarily despotic ● ARGUMENT: how does this apply to parts of Asia that did not lack water such as the Yellow River Myth of Temperate Europe ● “Rainfall farming” meant that European peasant farmers didn’t have to spend much time at farm work in order to satisfy their needs and their quota of surplus ● Whereas Asians worked much harder for the same product ● European farmers could use the extra time to improve agricultural technology ● ARGUMENT: irrigation is intended to increase productivity per worker and usually does so, meaning the farmers with irrigation should have more time than those with “rainfall farming” Criss-Cross Diffusion - Technology ● Spread of Technology from Numerous Diverse Sources ● Europe was only one of many places where complex technologies and societies were developed ● In fact, Europeans often was influenced by technologies and societies from beyond Europe Myth of European Religious Unity ● Claim that the Catholic Church is a social institution played a causal role in the modernization of Europe and the rise of capitalism ● ARGUMENT: the Islamic religion played the same role in the Muslim world Myth of European Nuclear Family/Late European Marriages ● European nuclear family households instead of extended families means that people would have fewer children (combating overpopulation and Malthusian Theory) and would now think more individualistically and thus entrepreneurially ● ARGUMENTS ○ Nuclear families were also characteristics of China in which 60% of peasant families were nuclear families ○ Why would the adult breadwinner work any harder for his wife and children than for his large family including his parents, cousins, and other relations Myth of Rationality ● Europeans were more rational and inventive than the less rational and superstitious non- Europeans Myth of European Technological Superiority - Myth of Advanced/European Society ● “X was invented here, on this date, and produced these effects” ● Has the appearance of cold-blooded scientific fact ● Gets its greatest strength from the error known as “telescoping history” ● ARGUMENT ○ Criss-cross diffusion made it so that any new technology would have spread quickly enough that there wouldn’t be any particular advantage to the inventor ○ Many “European inventions” were already invented elsewhere such as the heavy plow Fall of Rome ● 476 AD ● Western Europe experiences economic decline after the Fall of Rome ● Rome was conquered by Germanic Tribes “Barbarians” ● The western half of the Roman Empire collapses and entered the “Dark Ages” or Medieval Period ● The eastern half of the Roman Empire flourished for many centuries and was known as the Byzantine Empire Byzantine Empire - Constantinople ● The eastern half of the Roman Empire; Christian; Constantinople is the capital ● The big enemy of the Byzantine Empire was the Sassanid Persian Empire Dark Ages/Medieval Period ● The western half of the Roman Empire fell to the Barbarians and entered a period of economic and social decline ● Lasts for 1000 years; characterized by feudal/tributary system Baghdad - The House of Wisdom ● Baghdad, Persia ● Scholars from all over the eastern hemisphere came to study at the House of Wisdom ● Beginnings of the Renaissance Cordoba Spain, Islamic Center in Europe/Science and Learning in Islamic Empire ● Spain was ruled by Muslims during most of the Middle Ages ● Cordoba was an important center of Islamic learning ● Considered the Capital of Muslim Spain or a prominent Islamic Center in Europe ● This city was an economic center ● It was considered the Baghdad equivalent in Europe ● It amazed Europeans at the time because Europe was in the middle of the Dark Ages Mohammed ● Born in Mecca, died in MEdina ● Founder of Islam ● Teachings make up the Koran, the Muslim holy book Islam/The Koran ● A religion based on the teachings of the prophet Mohammed ● There is only one god (Allah) ● The Koran is the sacred text of Islam and contains all of Islam’s teachings Islamic Renaissance ● Scholars translated ancient texts from Greece and spread knowledge throughout Europe The Crusades - Massacre in Jerusalem ● Al-Hakim burned the Church of the Holy Sepulchre ● In 1095, the Pope announces a Crusade to reclaim Jerusalem from the "uncivilized and intolerant" Muslims ● They attacked at the perfect time because the Muslims were fragmented due to their rulers recently dying Saladin ● A prominent Muslim general who led the Muslim forces during the Third Crusade ● He liberated Jerusalem from the crusaders and allowed non-Muslims to stay or leave with their property ● Saladin captures Jerusalem from the invading crusaders in 1187 A.D. The Great Chain of Being ● Tributary System ● Ruler’s position is determined by divine/heaven ● God at top, Angels, Celestial Beings Astrology ● Was widely accepted as a form of scientific truth during the Middle Ages ● Belief in the influence of the position of celestial objects Influence on Aztec and European culture Feudal/Tributary System ● Rulers and Peasants Relationships ● Nobles gave land to lords in exchange for military service ● Peasants worked the land and had to pay tribute to the lords King Ferdinand & Queen Isabella ● King Ferdinand & Queen Isabella of Spain sent Columbus to “Asia” in 1492 in hopes that Europe can gain access to the lucrative trade routes around the Indian Ocean ● First daughter is Juana la Loca who married Philip the Handsome of the Holy Roman Empire ● Second daughter is Catherine of Aragon who married Arthur and Henry VIII of England Columbus - 1492 The Divine Right of Kings ● Mandate of Heaven/Will of God ● Rulers are regarded as being chosen to rule by heaven ● To rebel against a ruler is seen as rebellion against the divine Holy Roman Emperor Charles I & V ● Astrologers noted that his astrological chart matches that of Caesar Augustus and the Second Coming might happen when he is emperor ● He becomes King of Spain at 17, Holy Roman Emperor at 18, rules Mexico at 21, and the Incan Empire becomes his at 33 La Malinche ● A slave girl given to Cortez who become his translator Tenochtitlan - Emperor Montezuma ● Aztec Capital City ● Motecuhzoma/Montezuma was the Aztec Emperor in 1519 ○ The emperor was deeply concerned by the multiple omens reported in his empire before 1519, when Cortez and about 300 other Spaniards arrive in the Aztec Empire (see The Broken Spears Book) Quetzalcoatl Legend ● This exiled Toltec god might return to Mexico once every 52 years ● The year 1519 was a possible year during which this god might return and happens to be the same year that Cortez arrives in Mexico ● This causes a certain amount to confusion for the Aztecs who speculate as to whether or not Cortez might actually be a god Huitzilopochtli (Human Sacrifices) ● Aztec war god who was given human sacrifices ● Aztecs captured their enemies and sacrifice them to this war god Hernando Cortez (Cortes) ● Hernando Cortez (Cortes) and his fellow Spaniards arrive by ship from Cuba and set food on the mainland of Mexico 1519 - the same year that the Aztec god, Quetzalcoatl, was predicted to return to Mexico as described in The Broken Spears book Pedro de Alvarado ● Cortez’s lieutenant, he ordered the massacre of Aztecs at the Fiesta for Huitzilopochtli The Requerimiento ● Spanish conquistadors told the Natives to “surrender or die” Tlaxcala ● Mexican ally of Spaniards, encouraged the invasion of Cholula Tezcoco ● A city in between the march from Tlaxcala to Tenochtitlan ● Prince Ixtlilxochitl of Tezcoco welcomed the Spaniards and was later converted to Christianity Cholula Massacre ● Cholula was an enemy of Tlaxcala ● Spaniards massacred the people of Cholula because the people of Tlaxcala told them to Massacre during Aztec Fiesta for Huitzilopochtli ● The Spaniards massacred the unarmed Aztecs during their festival to worship the War God La Noche Triste (Night of Sorrows) ● The night when the Spaniards were forced to leave Tenochtitlan after killing Montezuma ● The retreat was discovered and the Aztecs attacked the retreating conquistadors Smallpox Epidemic ● Disease that wiped out most of the Native population because they had no immune defense against European diseases ● Was the primary reason why Cortez was able to conquer the Aztecs and Pizarro was able to conquer the Incans Siege of Tenochtitlan ● Cortez returns after the Night of Sorrows with Native American Allies and lays siege to what is left of Tenochtitlan after the Smallpox epidemic, lasted 80 days Cuauhtemoc Surrenders - Aug. 13, 1521 ● Cuauhtemoc, the king of Tenochtitlan, surrenders to the Spaniards and the Aztec empire becomes a colony of Spain Popes Sells Indulgences/Indulgences used to build St. Peter’s Basilica & Sistine Chapel ● Indulgences were signed documents by the Pope that forgave sins in order to prevent people from going to Purgatory ● The sale of indulgences was used to build St. Peter’s Basilica & Sistine Chapel Purgatory ● Purification before the soul can enter heaven The Reformation ● A 16th century movement for the reform of abuses in the Roman Catholic Church ending in the establishment of the Reformed and Protestant Churches Martin Luther/95 Theses - Oct. 31, 1517 ● Written by Martin Luther ● A criticism of some of the Pope’s actions and some of the Church’s practices at this time ● claims that the Pope is abusing his position by selling indulgences ● Only God, not the Pope can forgive sins ● If the Pope could actually forgive sins, he should do it freely for all ● Against the Doctrine of Transubstantiation ● People do not need a pope because they only need faith and the Pope is not God's Representative ● The Bible should be available in any language The Diet of Worms - 1521 ● Where the trial of Martin Luther held by Emperor Charles V takes place ● Luther is accompanied by Elector Duke Frederick of Saxony ● Luther is offered a chance to Recant but refuses 1. Explain the links between the rising of European middle classes, the Protestant Reformation, Calvinism, the colonization of the Americans and the changes in political power (from nobility to bourgeoisie) during the late 1500s and 1600s. How did these events contribute to the rise of the modern-nation state and capitalism? - Money poured in from the Americas that lead to the rapid growth of a European middle class - Calvinism brought new ideas and values that emphasized that the nobility are a problem - Calvinism and the middle class challenge feudal authority and the power of the traditional rulers - This led to the creation of individual nation-states that would replace the feudal system 2. How did the ideology of feudalism begin to be replaced after the rise of the middle classes? What sorts of new beliefs and ideals emerged to replaced the old “Great Chain of Being”? (Think about Calvinist attitudes about moral worth and wealth). In what sense is the ideology of political freedom or democracy at odds with the ideology of neoliberalism (or capitalism)? - Kings are chosen by a divine power, but the growing middle class challenged this concept by arguing that accumulation of wealth and hard work should choose their leaders - Protestant work ethic: God wants people to work hard and make money, which was what the middle class was doing - The middle class grew and was granted political power, but it was only male, white Protestants. Usually the lower classes and women are marginalized 3. How did Calvinism promote economic success as a sign of moral virtue? Why did Calvinists believe they should hold political power? How did this viewpoint contribute to the rise of capitalist nation-states? - Noblesse oblige: the nobility are supposed to protect society, including the poor. The middle class was strongly criticized for being immoral and their “greed” was seen to be dangerous - The Parable of the Talents: those that profit are considered to do good while those that do not are considered to be wicked and lazy - Calvinism also believed that the nobility were a problem and wanted to get rid of them. They argued that “ungodly kinds” should not be obeyed and they rejected the rule of certain kinds - King Philip II of Spain - they formed and elected government known as the states’ general 4. How was the rise of capitalism tied to the rise of modern nation-states and the end of tributary system? How was capitalism tied to these new political formations? How did a changes in religious inequalities did (and does) capitalism tend to produce in nation-states? - End of the tributary system - Treaty of Westphalia (1648) led to a capitalist economic political system - Nation-states and their own set territory and their own religion - Nation-states would have become capitalist and power would be shared between the nobility and bourgeoisie - The lower class especially did not benefit from this system - White, male Protestant benefited the most from this system 5. How were new kinds of inequality built into the newly formed capitalist “modern” nation-states of the late 1500s and 1600s (who gained political power and who did not gain political power at this time)? How was this structured differently from the inequalities found in feudal/tributary systems? Did capitalism give political power to everyone, or only those people who were considered “worthy” by virtue of their economic positions? Why or why not? - Capitalism continued to marginalized the lower classes and women - The capitalist laws: the bourgeoisie favored the middle class and gave them political power - This led to inequalities that previously focused on only social hierarchy, but now it focused on race and wealth - The inequalities were focused on socio-economic factors, creating a disparity amongst those who were of different race, gender, and economic wealth [Show More]

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